Changes in strength-related outcomes following velocity-monitored resistance training with 10 % and 20 % velocity loss in older adults.

We compared the effects of velocity-monitored resistance training with an intra-set velocity loss (i.e., the decrement in repetition velocity over the set) of 10 % vs. 20 % on strength-related outcomes in older adults. We randomly assigned eighteen older adults to a velocity loss group of 10 % (n = 10; 78 ± 12 years) or 20 % (n = 8; 73 ± 10 years) to perform a 10-week training program. The primary outcomes were the one-repetition maximum (1RM) and the average mean velocity against absolute loads associated with loads <60 % 1RM (MVlow) and ≥ 60 % 1RM (MVhigh) in the leg and chest press exercises, assessed at pre-, mid- (week 5), and post-test. Secondary outcomes included handgrip strength, 1-kg medicine ball throw distance, 10-m walking time, and five-repetition sit-to-stand time. No differences between groups were found in any outcome at any time (p > 0.05). Both groups improved the 1RM leg press from pre- to mid- and post-test and the MVlow and MVhigh from pre- to mid-test (p < 0.05). No group improved the 1RM chest press (p > 0.05), but both increased the MVlow from pre- to mid-test (p < 0.05). Furthermore, both groups improved the sit-to-stand time, while only the 20 % velocity loss group significantly improved handgrip strength and 10-m walking time (p < 0.05). The results showed that both velocity losses improved leg press strength and velocity, chest press velocity, and sit-to-stand time in older adults, although a 10 % velocity loss was more efficient as it required less volume (i.e., total repetitions) than 20 %. Nevertheless, the latter seems required to optimize handgrip strength and 10-m walking time in older people.

Estimating the relative load from movement velocity in the seated chest press exercise in older adults.

AIM: This study aimed to i) determine the load-velocity relationship in the seated chest press in older adults, ii) compare the magnitude of the relationship between peak and mean velocity with the relative load, and iii) analyze the differences between sexes in movement velocity for each relative load in the chest press. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Thirty-two older adults (17 women and 15 men; 79.6±7.7 years) performed a chest press progressive loading test up to the one-repetition maximum (1RM). The fastest peak and mean velocity reached with each weight were analyzed. Quadratic equations were developed for both sexes and the effectiveness of the regression model was analyzed through a residual analysis. The equations were cross-validated, considering the holdout method. The independent samples t-test analyzed i) the differences in the magnitude of the relationship between peak and mean velocity with the relative load and ii) the differences between sexes in the peak and mean velocity for each relative load. RESULTS: It was possible to observe very strong quadratic load-velocity relationships in the seated chest press in women (peak velocity: r2 = 0.97, standard error of the estimate (SEE) = 4.5% 1RM; mean velocity: r2 = 0.96, SEE = 5.3% 1RM) and men (peak velocity: r2 = 0.98, SEE = 3.8% 1RM; mean velocity: r2 = 0.98, SEE = 3.8% 1RM) without differences (p>0.05) in the magnitude of the relationship between peak and mean velocity with the relative load. Furthermore, there was no overfitting in the regression models due to the high and positive correlation coefficients (r = 0.98-0.99). Finally, men presented higher (p<0.001) lifting velocities than women in almost all relative loads, except for 95-100% 1RM (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Measuring repetition velocity during the seated chest press is an objective approach to estimating the relative load in older adults. Furthermore, given the velocity differences between older women and men at submaximal loads, it is recommended to use sex-specific equations to estimate and prescribe the relative loads in older adults.

Manipulating the Resistance Training Volume in Middle-Aged and Older Adults: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis of the Effects on Muscle Strength and Size, Muscle Quality, and Functional Capacity.

BACKGROUND: Effective manipulation of the acute variables of resistance training is critical to optimizing muscle and functional adaptations in middle-aged and older adults. However, the ideal volume prescription (e.g., number of sets performed per exercise) in middle-aged and older adults remains inconclusive in the literature. OBJECTIVE: The effects of single versus multiple sets per exercise on muscle strength and size, muscle quality, and functional capacity in middle-aged and older adults were compared. Moreover, the effects of single versus multiple sets per exercise on muscular and functional gains were also examined, considering the influence of training duration. METHODS: Randomized controlled trials and non-randomized controlled trials comparing single versus multiple sets per exercise on muscle strength, muscle size, muscle quality, or functional capacity in middle-aged and older adults (aged ≥ 50 years) in the PubMed/MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Scopus databases (01/09/2021, updated on 15/05/2022) were identified. A random-effects meta-analysis was used. RESULTS: Fifteen studies were included (430 participants; 93% women; age 57.9-70.1 years). Multiple sets per exercise produced a greater effect than single sets on lower-limb strength (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.29; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.07-0.51; mean difference [MD] = 1.91 kg; 95% CI 0.50-3.33) and muscle quality (SMD = 0.40; 95% CI 0.05-0.75) gains. There were no differences between single versus multiple sets per exercise for upper-limb strength (SMD = 0.13; 95% CI - 0.14 to 0.40; MD = 0.11 kg; 95% CI - 0.52 to 0.75), muscle size (SMD = 0.15; 95% CI - 0.07 to 0.37), and functional capacity (SMD = 0.01; 95% CI - 0.47 to 0.50) gains. In addition, there were no differences between single versus multiple sets on muscle strength and size gains for training durations ≤ 12 weeks or > 12 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple sets per exercise produced greater lower-limb strength and muscle quality gains than single sets in middle-aged and older adults, although the magnitude of the difference was small. In contrast, single sets per exercise were sufficient to improve upper-limb strength, muscle size, and functional capacity in these populations. Despite these findings, researchers should conduct future high-quality, pre-registered, and blinded randomized controlled trials to strengthen the scientific evidence on this topic.

Acute Effects of Heavy Strength Training on Mechanical, Hemodynamic, Metabolic, and Psychophysiological Parameters in Young Adult Males.

This study analyzed the acute effects of heavy strength training on mechanical, hemodynamic, metabolic, and psychophysiological responses in adult males. Thirteen recreational level males (23.3 ± 1.5 years) randomly performed two heavy strength training sessions (3 sets of 8 repetitions at 80% of one repetition maximum [1RM]) using the bench press (HST-BP) or full squat (HST-FS)). The repetition velocity was recorded in both sessions. Moreover, before and after the sessions, the velocity attained against the ~1.00 m·s−1 load (V1Load) in the HST-BP, countermovement jump (CMJ) height in the HST-FS, blood pressure, heart rate, blood lactate, and psychophysiological responses (OMNI Perceived Exertion Scale for Resistance Exercise) were measured. There were differences between exercises in the number of repetitions performed in the first and third sets (both <8 repetitions). The velocity loss was higher in the HST-BP than in the HST-FS (50.8 ± 10.0% vs. 30.7 ± 9.5%; p < 0.001). However, the mechanical fatigue (V1Load vs. CMJ height) and the psychophysiological response did not differ between sessions (p > 0.05). The HST-FS caused higher blood pressure and heart rate responses than the HST-BP (p < 0.001 and p = 0.02, respectively) and greater blood lactate changes from pre-training to post-set 1 (p < 0.05). These results showed that the number of maximal repetitions performed in both sessions was lower than the target number and decreased across sets. Moreover, the HST-BP caused a higher velocity loss than the HST-FS. Finally, the HST-FS elicited higher hemodynamic and metabolic demand than the HST-BP.

Load-power relationship in older adults: The influence of maximal mean and peak power values and their associations with lower and upper-limb functional capacity.

Identifying the relative loads (%1RM) that maximize power output (Pmax-load) in resistance exercises can help design interventions to optimize muscle power in older adults. Moreover, examining the maximal mean power (MPmax) and peak power (PPmax) values (Watts) would allow an understanding of their differences and associations with functionality markers in older adults. Therefore, this research aimed to 1) analyze the load-mean and peak power relationships in the leg press and chest press in older adults, 2) examine the differences between mean Pmax-load (MPmax-load) and peak Pmax-load (PPmax-load) within resistance exercises, 3) identify the differences between resistance exercises in MPmax-load and PPmax-load, and 4) explore the associations between MPmax and PPmax in the leg press and chest press with functional capacity indicators. Thirty-two older adults (79.3 ± 7.3 years) performed the following tests: medicine ball throw (MBT), five-repetition sit-to-stand (STS), 10-m walking (10 W), and a progressive loading test in the leg press and chest press. Quadratic regressions analyzed 1) the load-mean and peak power relationships and identified the MPmax-load, MPmax, PPmax-load, and PPmax in both exercises, 2) the associations between MPmax and PPmax in the chest press with MBT, and 3) the associations between MPmax and PPmax in the leg press with STSpower and 10Wvelocity. In the leg press, the MPmax-load was ∼66% 1RM, and the PPmax-load was ∼62% 1RM, both for women and men (p > 0.05). In the chest press, the MPmax-load was ∼62% 1RM, and the PPmax-load was ∼56% 1RM, both for women and men (p > 0.05). There were differences between MPmax-load and PPmax-load within exercises (p < 0.01) and differences between exercises in MPmax-load and PPmax-load (p < 0.01). The MPmax and PPmax in the chest press explained ∼48% and ∼52% of the MBT-1 kg and MBT-3 kg variance, respectively. In the leg press, the MPmax and PPmax explained ∼59% of STSpower variance; however, both variables could not explain the 10Wvelocity performance (r 2 ∼ 0.02). This study shows that the Pmax-load is similar between sexes, is resistance exercise-specific, and varies within exercises depending on the mechanical power variable used in older adults. Furthermore, this research demonstrates the influence of the MBT as an upper-limb power marker in older adults.

Velocity-Monitored Resistance Training in Older Adults: The Effects of Low-Velocity Loss Threshold on Strength and Functional Capacity.

ABSTRACT: Marques, DL, Neiva, HP, Marinho, DA, and Marques, MC. Velocity-monitored resistance training in older adults: the effects of low-velocity loss threshold on strength and functional capacity. J Strength Cond Res 36(11): 3200-3208, 2022-This study analyzed the effects of velocity-monitored resistance training (RT) with a velocity loss of 10% on strength and functional capacity in older adults. Forty-two subjects (79.7 ± 7.1 years) were allocated into an RT group ( n = 21) or a control group (CG; n = 21). Over 10 weeks, the RT group performed 2 sessions per week, whereas the CG maintained their daily routine. During RT sessions, we monitored each repetition's mean velocity in the leg press and chest press exercises at 40-65% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). The set ended when a velocity loss of 10% was reached. At pretest and post-test, both groups were assessed in the 1RM leg press and chest press, handgrip strength, medicine ball throw (MBT), walking speed (T 10 ), and 5-repetition sit-to-stand (STS). After 10 weeks, the RT group significantly improved the 1RM leg press ( p < 0.001; Hedge's g effect size [ g ] = 0.55), 1RM chest press ( p < 0.001; g = 0.72), MBT 1kg ( p < 0.01; g = 0.26), T 10 ( p < 0.05; g = -0.29), and STS ( p < 0.05; g = -0.29), whereas the CG significantly increased the T 10 ( p < 0.05; g = 0.15). Comparisons between groups at post-test demonstrated significant differences in the 1RM leg press ( p < 0.001; mean difference [MD] = 14.4 kg), 1RM chest press ( p < 0.001; MD = 7.52), MBT 1kg ( p < 0.05; MD = 0.40 m), T 10 ( p < 0.001; MD = -0.60 seconds), and STS ( p < 0.001; MD = -1.85 seconds). Our data demonstrate that velocity-monitored RT with velocity loss of 10% results in a few repetitions per set (leg press: 5.1 ± 1.2; chest press: 3.6 ± 0.9) and significantly improves strength and functional capacity in older adults.

Acute and Long-Term Comparison of Fixed vs. Self-Selected Rest Interval Between Sets on Upper-Body Strength.

ABSTRACT: Simão, R, Polito, M, de Salles, BF, Marinho, DA, Garrido, ND, Santos Junior, ERT, and Willardson, JM. Acute and long-term comparison of fixed vs. self-selected rest interval between sets on upper-body strength. J Strength Cond Res 36(2): 540-544, 2022-The effects of different rest interval durations between sets has been widely studied, but only recently, the self-selected rest interval (SSRI) has been a matter of interest. However, previous studies comparing fixed and SSRI have investigated only acute responses. The purpose of this study was to analyze the acute and long-term effects of a fixed rest interval (FRI) vs. an SSRI between sets on upper-body performance and strength gains. Thirty-three trained men were randomly divided into 2 groups: FRI (75 seconds between sets), and SSRI. Both groups performed 3 sets with 75% of 1-repetition maximum until repetition failure in the chest press (CP), lat pull-down (LPD), shoulder press (SP), and seated row (SR) 3 times a week for 8 weeks. The results demonstrated that the SSRI allowed for significantly greater repetition performance vs. the FRI in the CP (26.1 ± 2.0 vs. 21.5 ± 1.8), LPD (30.1 ± 2.3 vs. 24.9 ± 1.9), SP (24.0 ± 2.8 vs. 17.4 ± 1.5), and SR (26.3 ± 1.6 vs. 22.0 ± 1.6). In addition, the following strength gains were observed: SSRI (CP: 6.8%, LPD: 8.0%, SP: 6.7%, SR: 7.8%) and FRI (CP: 7.4%, LPD: 6.7%, SP: 6.1%, SR: 7.0%) without significant differences between the groups. In conclusion, within an 8-week period, both protocols seem to be effective for strength gains, despite the higher training volume accomplished by the SSRI group. However, the FRI was 37% more time efficient.

Evaluation of the Psychometric Properties of the Portuguese Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 Edition: A Study with Children Aged 12 to 48 Months.

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of Peabody Developmental Motor Scales II (PDMS-2-Folio and Fewell, 2000) using a Portuguese sample. The validation of the Portuguese version of the PDMS-2 was applied according to the manual, for 392 children, from two institutions, from 12 to 48 months, with an analysis of the internal consistency (α Cronbach), of test-retest reliability (ICC) and construct validity (confirmatory factor analysis). The results of the confirmatory factorial analysis (χ2 = 55.614; df = 4; p = 0.06; χ2/df =13.904; SRMR (Standardized Root Mean Square Residual) = 0.065; CFI (Comparative Fit Index) = 0.99, TLI = 0.99, RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) = 0.068) of two factors (Gross Motor and Fine Motor) as the original version but correlated. Most of the subtests had good internal consistency (α = 0.85) and good test-retest stability (ICC = 0.98 to 0.99). The results indicated that the Portuguese version of the PDMS-2 is adequate and valid for assessing global and fine motor skills in children aged 12 to 48 months, and can be used as a reference tool by health and education professionals to assess motor skills and, thus, allowing to detect maladjustments, deficiencies or precocity, so that children can later receive appropriate intervention.

Force production and muscle activation during partial vs. full range of motion in Paralympic Powerlifting.

Paralympic Powerlifting is a sport in which the strength of the upper limbs is assessed through bench press performance in an adapted specific bench. It is therefore essential to optimize training methods to maximize this performance. The aim of the present study was to compare force production and muscle activation involved in partial vs. full range of motion (ROM) training in Paralympic Powerlifting. Twelve male athletes of elite national level in Paralympic Powerlifting participated in the study (28.60 ± 7.60 years of age, 71.80 ± 17.90 kg of body mass). The athletes performed five sets of 5RM (repetition maximum), either with 90% of 1RM in full ROM or with a load of 130% 1RM in partial ROM. All subjects underwent both exercise conditions in consecutive weeks. Order assignment in the first week was random and counterbalanced. Fatigue index (FI), Maximum Isometric Force (MIF), Time to MIF (Time) and rate of force development (RFD) were determined by a force sensor. Muscle thickness was obtained using ultrasound images. All measures were taken pre- and post-training. Additionally, electromyographic signal (EMG) was evaluated in the last set of each exercise condition. Post-exercise fatigue was higher with full ROM as well as loss of MIF. Full ROM also induced greater. EMG showed greater activation of the Clavicular portion and Sternal portion of pectoralis major muscle and lower in the anterior portion of deltoid muscle when full ROM was performed. Muscle thickness of the pectoralis major muscle increased post-exercise. We concluded that training with partial ROM enables higher workloads with lower loss of muscle function.

Interaction effects of different orders of resistance exercises and rest intervals on performances by young athletes.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to verify the acute effects of different exercise orders and rest intervals between sets on young athletes performance. METHOD: Sixteen young male football players (73.2 ± 4.8 kg, 177.5 ± 5.1 cm, BMI 23.2 ± 1.1, 19.8 ± 0.9 years) completed six experimental strength training (ST) sessions with different exercise order sequences (A and B) and rest interval lengths (1 min, 3 min, and self-selected).In Sequence A the exercises were: bench press (BP), back squat (BS), biceps curl (BC) and plantar flexion (PF); while Sequence B was performed in the opposite order (i.e. PF, BC, BS and BP).The total work volume (TWV) per exercise (sets x repetitions x load) and per training session (sum of the TWV of all exercises) were evaluated for all ST sessions. RESULTS: BC and PF exercises presented higher TWV in sequence B (p ≤ 0.05). Already, the exercises BP, BS and PF presented higher TWV with 3 min and self-selected rest intervals (p ≤ 0.05). The 3-min and self-selected rest intervals presented higher values of TWV per training session compared to the 1-min rest interval (p ≤ 0.05). CONCLUSION: The exercise order influenced certain exercises (BC and PF), which presented higher TWV when positioned at the beginning of a sequence. While the longer rest intervals (3 min and self-selected) resulted in higher TWV per exercise (BP, BS and PF) and per training session. These results suggest that self-selected rest interval can be implemented to increase training efficiency in young athletes.

Load-velocity relationship in the horizontal leg-press exercise in older women and men.

This study analyzed the predictive ability of movement velocity to estimate the relative load (i.e., % of one-repetition maximum [1RM]) during the horizontal leg-press exercise in older women and men. Twenty-four women and fourteen men living in community-dwelling centers volunteered to participate in this study. All participants performed a progressive loading test up to 1RM in the horizontal leg-press. The fastest peak velocity (PV) and mean velocity (MV) attained with each weight were collected for analysis. Linear regression equations were modeled for women and men. We observed very strong linear relationships between both velocity variables and the relative load in the horizontal leg-press in women (PV: r2 = 0.93 and standard error of the estimate (SEE) = 5.96% 1RM; MV: r2 = 0.94 and SEE = 5.59% 1RM) and men (PV: r2 = 0.93 and SEE = 5.96% 1RM; MV: r2 = 0.94 and SEE = 5.97% 1RM). The actual 1RM and the estimated 1RM using both the PV and MV presented trivial differences and very strong relationships (r = 0.98-0.99) in both sexes. Men presented significantly higher (p < 0.001-0.05) estimated PV and MV against all relative loads compared to women (average PV = 0.81 vs. 0.69 m·s-1 and average MV = 0.44 vs. 0.38 m·s-1). Our data suggest that movement velocity accurately estimates the relative load during the horizontal leg-press in older women and men. Coaches and researchers can use the proposed sex-specific regression equations in the horizontal leg-press to implement velocity-monitored resistance training with older adults.

An Experimental Study on the Validity and Reliability of a Smartphone Application to Acquire Temporal Variables during the Single Sit-to-Stand Test with Older Adults.

Smartphone sensors have often been proposed as pervasive measurement systems to assess mobility in older adults due to their ease of use and low-cost. This study analyzes a smartphone-based application's validity and reliability to quantify temporal variables during the single sit-to-stand test with institutionalized older adults. Forty older adults (20 women and 20 men; 78.9 ± 8.6 years) volunteered to participate in this study. All participants performed the single sit-to-stand test. Each sit-to-stand repetition was performed after an acoustic signal was emitted by the smartphone app. All data were acquired simultaneously with a smartphone and a digital video camera. The measured temporal variables were stand-up time and total time. The relative reliability and systematic bias inter-device were assessed using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Bland-Altman plots. In contrast, absolute reliability was assessed using the standard error of measurement and coefficient of variation (CV). Inter-device concurrent validity was assessed through correlation analysis. The absolute percent error (APE) and the accuracy were also calculated. The results showed excellent reliability (ICC = 0.92-0.97; CV = 1.85-3.03) and very strong relationships inter-devices for the stand-up time (r = 0.94) and the total time (r = 0.98). The APE was lower than 6%, and the accuracy was higher than 94%. Based on our data, the findings suggest that the smartphone application is valid and reliable to collect the stand-up time and total time during the single sit-to-stand test with older adults.

Propulsive Force of Upper Limbs and its Relationship to Swim Velocity in the Butterfly Stroke.

The aims of this study were to: (1) verify the sex effect; (2) assess upper limb asymmetry in anthropometrics and propulsive force variables; and (3) identify the main determinants of butterfly swim velocity based on a set of anthropometrics, kinematics, and propulsive force variables. Twenty swimmers (10 males: 15.40±0.30 years; 10 females: 14.43±0.23 years) at the national level were recruited for analysis. A set of anthropometrics, kinematics, and propulsive force variables were measured. Overall, a significant sex effect was verified (p≤0.05). Non-significant differences between upper-limbs were noted for males and females in all variables, except for the dF in males (t=-2.66, p=0.026, d=0.66). Stroke frequency presented the highest contribution, where a one unit increase in the stroke frequency imposed an increase of 0.375 m·s-1 (95CI: 0.105;0.645, p=0.010) in the swim velocity. The swim velocity was predicted by the mean propulsive force, intra-cyclic variation of the swim velocity, and stroke frequency. Overall, swimmers exhibit non-significant differences in the variables assessed. Swim velocity in the butterfly stroke was determined by an interaction of propulsive force and kinematic variables in young swimmers.

Accelerometer data from the performance of sit-to-stand test by elderly people.

The sit-to-stand test is commonly used by clinicians and researchers to analyze the functional capacity of older adults. The test consists to stand up and sit down from a chair and can be applied either in function of a predetermined number of repetitions to be completed or according to a specific time. The most common tool used by the evaluators is the chronometer, due to its low cost and ease of use. However, this tool may miss some important data throughout the test, such as the stand-up time and the total time of each repetition, as well as other kinematic and kinetic variables. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new cheap and affordable tools to capture these data with reliability. In this perspective, the development of mobile applications can be a valid and reliable alternative for the automatic calculation of different variables with sensors' data, including acceleration, velocity, force, power, and others. Thus, in this paper, we present a dataset related to the acquisition of the accelerometer data from a commodity smartphone for the measurement of different variables during the sit-to-stand test with institutionalized older adults. Forty participants (20 men and 20 women, 78.9 ± 8.6 years old, 71.7 ± 15.0 kg, 1.57 ± 0.1 m) from five community-dwelling centers (Centro de Dia e Apoio Domiciliário de Alcongosta, Lar Nossa Senhora de Fátima, Centro Comunitário das Minas da Panasqueira, Lar da Misericórdia, and Lar da Aldeia de Joanes) from Fundão, in Portugal, volunteered to participate in the data acquisition. A mobile phone was attached to the waist of the participants to capture the data during the sit-to-stand test. Then, seated in an armless chair with the arms crossed over the chest, the participants stood up and sat down in a chair six times. The stand-up action was ordered by an acoustic signal emitted by the mobile application. All data were acquired with the mobile application, and the outcome measures were the reaction time, total time, stand-up time and movement time. This paper describes the procedures to acquire the data. These data can be reused for testing machine learning or other methods for the evaluation of neuromuscular function in older adults during the sit-to-stand test.

Anaerobic Threshold Biophysical Characterisation of the Four Swimming Techniques.

The anaerobic threshold (AnT) seems to be not only a physiologic boundary but also a transition after which swimmers technique changes, modifying their biomechanical behaviour. We expanded the AnT concept to a biophysical construct in the four conventional swimming techniques. Seventy-two elite swimmers performed a 5×200 m incremental protocol in their preferred swimming technique (with a 0.05 m·s-1 increase and a 30 s interval between steps). A capillary blood samples were collected from the fingertip and stroke rate (SR) and length (SL) determined for the assessment of [La], SR and SL vs. velocity inflexion points (using the interception of a pair of linear and exponential regression curves). The [La] values at the AnT were 3.3±1.0, 3.9±1.1, 2.9±1 .34 and 4.5±1.4 mmol·l-1 (mean±SD) for front crawl, backstroke, breaststroke and butterfly, and its corresponding velocity correlated highly with those at SR and SL inflection points (r=0.91-0.99, p<0.001). The agreement analyses confirmed that AnT represents a biophysical boundary in the four competitive swimming techniques and can be determined individually using [La] and/or SR/SL. Blood lactate increase speed can help characterise swimmers' anaerobic behaviour after AnT and between competitive swimming techniques.

Desenvolvimento motor da criança: relação entre habilidades motoras globais, habilidades motoras finas e idade / Desarrollo motor del niño: relación entre habilidades motoras globales, habilidades motoras finas y edad / Child motor development: relationship between global and fine motor skills and age

O presente estudo sobre o desenvolvimento Motor da criança nos primeiros meses de vida, teve como objetivo verificar a relação entre as Habilidades Motoras Globais, as Habilidades Motoras Finas e a Idade das crianças. Estudo transversal, com uma amostra de 405 crianças com idades compreendidas entre os 12 e os 46 meses, de ambos os géneros. Os instrumentos usados no estudo foram as Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 (PDMS-2). Em termos globais os resultados indicam que existe uma tendência para correlações positivas entre as variáveis Idade, Habilidades Motoras Globais e Habilidades Motoras Finas, salientando a correlação positiva moderada (p≤0.05; r2=0.265; 0.5≤ r ≤0.7) entre a Idade e a Motricidade Fina, e uma correlação positiva pequena (p≤0.05; r2=0.217; 0.1≤ r ≤ 0.3) entre a Idade e a Motricidade Global. Podemos assim constatar, uma melhoria destas habilidades à medida que as crianças vão crescendo, evidenciando melhores resultados na Motricidade Fina. Os resultados obtidos sugerem a importância da relação entre a idade e as habilidades motoras, focando a necessidade de desenvolver com mais ênfase as Habilidades Motoras Globais

El presente estudio sobre el desarrollo Motor del niño en los primeros meses de vida, tuvo como objetivo verificar la relación entre las Habilidades Motoras Globales, las Habilidades Motoras Finas y la Edad de los niños. Para ello, desarrollamos un estudio de naturaleza cuantitativa, con una muestra de 405 niños de edades comprendidas entre los 12 y los 46 meses, de ambos géneros. Los instrumentos utilizados en el estudio fueron las Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 (PDMS-2). En términos globales los resultados indican que existe una tendencia a correlaciones positivas entre las variables Edad, Habilidades Motoras Globales y Habilidades Motoras Finas, resaltando la correlación positiva moderada (p≤0.05, r2=0.265, 0.5≤ r ≤ 0.7) entre la Edad y la Motricidad Fina a su vez una pequeña correlación positiva (p≤0.05, r2=0.217, 0.1≤ r ≤ 0.3) entre la Edad y la Motricidad Global. Podemos así constatar, una mejora de esas habilidades a medida que los niños crecen, evidenciando mejores resultados en la Motricidad Fina. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren la importancia de la relación entre la edad y las habilidades motoras, enfocando la necesidad de desarrollar con más énfasis las Habilidades Motoras Globales

The present study on motor development of the child in the first months of life, at verifying the relationship between Global Motor Skills, Fine Motor Skills and the Age of children. For this purpose, we developed a quantitative study, with a sample of 405 children between the ages of 12 and 46 months of both genders. The instruments used in the study were the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-2 (PDMS-2). Overall, the results indicate that there is a tendency for positive correlations between the variables Age, Global Motor Skills and Fine Motor Skills, emphasizing the moderate positive correlation (p≤0.05; r2=0.265; 0.5≤ r ≤ 0.7) between Age and Fine Motricity in turn a small positive correlation (p≤0.05; r2=0.217; 0.1≤ r ≤ 0.3) between Age and Global Motricity. We can thus see an improvement of these abilities as children grow, evidencing better results in Fine Motor. The results suggest the importance of the relationship between age and motor skills, focusing on the need to develop with more emphasis the Global Motor Skills

Concurrent Training and Detraining: brief Review on the Effect of Exercise Intensities.

Concurrent resistance and aerobic training (CT) has been applied to optimize both strength and aerobic performance. However, it should be carefully prescribed, as there are some factors, as the training intensity, which have strong influence on training adaptations. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to analyze the scientific evidence regarding aerobic and resistance exercise intensities during CT and their effect on performance outcomes. The effects of exercise intensity on a subsequent detraining period were also assessed. Nine studies met the inclusion criteria, the risk of bias was assessed, and the percentage of changes and effect sizes were quantified. CT improved running times (10 m, 30 m and 10 km) and strength performance (one-repetition maximum, countermovement jump) regardless of exercise intensity used (4-47%, ES=0.4-2.8). Nevertheless, higher aerobic training intensities (≥ lactate threshold intensity) resulted in higher aerobic gains (5-10%, ES=0.3-0.6), and greater neuromuscular adaptations were found when higher resistance loads (≥ 70% of maximal strength) were used (10-14%, ES=0.4-1.3). Most training-induced gains were reversed after 2-4 weeks of detraining. Although further research is needed, it seems that higher intensities of aerobic or resistance training induce greater aerobic or neuromuscular gains, respectively. Nevertheless, it seems that higher resistance training loads should be combined with lower aerobic training intensities for increased strength gains and minimal losses after detraining.

The comparison of Imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite swimmers / Comparación de la habilidad de Visualización Mental de los atletas de Elite, Sub - Elite y No - Elite en la Natación / Comparação entre praticantes de Elite, Sub - Elite e Não - Elite na habilidade de Imagery em praticantes de Natação

The ability to generate and control mental images is present in all of us, but it differs from person to person. Therefore, it is important to understand that imagery ability can be changed through training and experimentation, it is not a fixed ability (Cumming & Williams, 2012). The aim of this study is to compare imagery ability in elite, sub-elite and non-elite athletes in a sport which involves closed and continuous motor skills, such as swimming. 79 swimmers (male N = 37; female N = 42) at an average age of 17 took part in this study. In order to assess imagery ability, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire 3 was used, Portuguese version (Mendes et al., 2016). After analysis of the results, these show that in each and every imagery modality, the scores in the three groups differ significantly. In kinesthetic and external visual imagery the elite and sub-elite groups' scores, although not statistically different from each other, are significantly higher than those of the non-elite group. In internal visual imagery, the differences between all the compared pairs of groups are statistically significant. The elite group got the highest scores, followed by the sub-elite group average scores and finally the non-elite group average scores. According to these results, the conclusion is that athletes with better performance show greater imagery ability and that apparently the external visual imagery proved to be the best intervention method among swimming athletes

La capacidad de controlar y generar imágenes mentales está presente en todos los individuos, pero varía de sujeto a sujeto, por lo tanto, es importante entender que la habilidad de visualización mental es una capacidad que se puede modificar con el entrenamiento y la experimentación, y no una habilidad fija (Cumming & Williams, 2012; Hall, 2001). El objetivo de nuestro estudio fue el de comparar la habilidad de visualización mental en practicantes de Elite, Sub-Elite y No-Elite, en una modalidad deportiva con habilidades motoras cerradas y continuas, la natación. En este estudio participaron 79 sujetos practicantes de Natación (N = 76) (género masculino N = 37, género femenino N = 42) con una edad media de 17 años (DE = 3,1). Se definieron tres niveles de práctica, el grupo de Elite (N = 29), el grupo Sub-Elite (N = 27) y No-Elite (N = 23). Para evaluar la habilidad de visualización mental se utilizó el Movement Imagery Questionnaire - 3, versión portuguesa (Mendes et al., 2015). Después de analizar los resultados verificamos que en todas y cada una de las modalidades de visualización mental, las medias obtenidas en los tres grupos (Elite, Sub-Elite y No-Elite) muestran diferencias significativas. De acuerdo con estos resultados podemos concluir que los atletas con mejor rendimiento deportivo muestran una mejor capacidad de visualización mental y que, aparentemente, la modalidad visual externa resultó como el mejor método de intervención para practicantes de Natación

A habilidade de controlar e gerar imagens mentais está presente em todos os indivíduos, mas varia de sujeito para sujeito. Consequentemente, é importante entender que a habilidade de imagery é uma capacidade que pode ser modificável com o treino e a experimentação, e não uma habilidade fixa (Cumming & Williams, 2012; Hall, 2001). O objetivo do nosso estudo foi comparar a habilidade de imagery em praticantes de Elite, Sub-Elite e Não-Elite, numa modalidade com habilidades motoras fechadas e contínuas, a Natação. Neste estudo, participaram 79 sujeitos praticantes de Natação (N = 76) (sexo masculino N = 37; sexo feminino N = 42), com uma média de idades de 17 anos (SD = 3.1). Foram definidos três níveis de prática, sendo o grupo de Elite (N = 29), o grupo Sub-Elite (N = 27) e Não-Elite (N = 23). Para avaliar a habilidade de imagery, foi utilizado o Movement Imagery Questionnaire - 3, versão portuguesa (Mendes et al., 2015). Após a análise dos resultados, verificámos que em todas e em cada uma das modalidades do imagery, as médias obtidas nos três grupos (Elite, Sub-Elite e Não-Elite) apresentam diferenças significativas. De acordo com estes resultados, podemos concluir que atletas com melhor performance desportiva revelam uma melhor capacidade de imagery e que aparentemente a modalidade visual externa se revelou como melhor método de intervenção em praticantes de Natação

Assessing Need Satisfaction and Frustration in Portuguese Exercise Instructors: scale validity, reliabity and invariance between gender / Evaluación de la satisfacción y la frustración de las necesidades en los instructores portugueses de ejercicios: validez de escala, confiabilidad e invariancia entre los géneros / Avaliando a Satisfação e Frustração das Necessidades em Português Instrutores de Exercício: validade da escala, fiabilidade e invariância entre géneros

Objective: The aim of the present study was to validate the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale in Exercise for fitness instructors. Methods: Data from 477 exercise professionals (319 males, 158 females) was collected.Results: CFA supported the adapted and validated six-factor model: [χ2(237) = 1096.796, χ2/df= 4.63; B-S p < .001, CFI = .930, TLI = .918, SRMR= .0366, RMSEA = .079 (CI90% = .069, .089)], assessing satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs in Portuguese exercise professionals. Moreover, the analysis revealed acceptable composite reliability, and construct validity of the adapted version. Results revealed nomological validity, as well as invariance between male and female. No differences were found across latent means, and magnitude effects were trivial between gender. Conclusion: These results support the use of the adapted scale in exercise professionals, showing measurement invariance between gender. This scale is able to measure how exercise professionals experience satisfaction and frustration of basic needs when prescribing exercise to individuals in fitness context

Objetivo: El objetivo del presente estudio fue validar la Escala de Satisfacción y Frustración de Necesidades Psicológicas Básicas en el Ejercicio para instructores de ejercicio físico. Métodos: Se recopilaron datos de 477 profesionales del ejercicio (319 hombres, 158 mujeres). Resultados: CFA apoyó el modelo de seis factores adaptado y validado: [χ2 (237) = 1096.796, χ2 / df = 4.63; B-S p <.001, CFI = .930, TLI = .918, SRMR = .0366, RMSEA = .079 (CI90% = .069, .089)], evaluando la satisfacción y la frustración de las necesidades psicológicas básicas en los profesionales del ejercicio portugués. Además, el análisis reveló una validez en la confiabilidad compuesta, constructo y nomológica aceptables de la versión adaptada, asícomo invariabilidad entre hombres y mujeres. No se encontraron diferencias entre las medias latentes, y los efectos de magnitud fueron triviales entre los géneros. Conclusión: estos resultados apoyan el uso de la escala adaptada en los profesionales del ejercicio, que muestran la invariancia de la medición entre los géneros. Esta escala es capaz de medir cómo los profesionales del ejercicio experimentan la satisfacción y la frustración de las necesidades básicas, y cómo regulan los comportamientos interpersonales.Palabras-clave: teoría de la autodeterminación, ejercicio, necesidades básicas, comportamientos interpersonales, instructores de ejercicio

Objetivo: O objetivo deste estudo consistiu na validação do Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale in Exerciseem instrutores de fitness. Métodos: Recolhemos dados de 477 profissionais de exercício físico (319 masculino, 158 feminino).Resultados: A análise CFA suporta o modelo de 6-factores adaptado e validado: [χ2(237) = 1096.796, χ2/df= 4.63; B-S p < .001, CFI = .930, TLI = .918, SRMR= .0366, RMSEA = .079 (CI90% = .069, .089)], avaliando a satisfação e frustração das necessidades psicológicas básicas em instrutores profissionais portugueses de exercício físico. Além disso, a análise revela fiabilidade compósita aceitável e validade dos construtos da versão adaptada. Os resultados revelam validade nomológica, bem como invariância entre sexo masculino e feminino. Não foram encontradas diferenças entre as médias latentes, e a magnitudedos efeitos foi trivial entre géneros. Conclusão: Estes resultados suportam o uso desta escala adaptada em profissionais do exercício físico, mostrando ser invariante entre géneros. Esta escala é capaz de medir como os técnicos profissionais de exercício físico experienciam a satisfação e frustração das necessidades básicas aquando da prescrição de exercício físico para clientes de exercício no contexto do fitness.Palavras chave: Teoria da Autodeterminação, exercício, necessidades básicas, comportamentosinterpessoais, instrutoresde fitness

Effects of Warm-Up, Post-Warm-Up, and Re-Warm-Up Strategies on Explosive Efforts in Team Sports: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: In team sports, it is imperative that the warm-up improves acute explosive performance. However, the exact strategies, methods, and consequences of different warm-up practices remain unclear. A time delay between the warm-up and match and during half-time could negate the positive metabolic effects of the warm-up. OBJECTIVES: We conducted a systematic review to synthesize and analyze the potential effects of strategies during a warm-up (before match), post-warm-up (time between the end of warm-up and the start of a match), and re-warm-up (half-time break within a match) on explosive performance in team sports. Furthermore, we examined optimal warm-up strategies based on the included studies. METHODS: We performed a search of four databases (Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, and ScienceDirect) for original research articles published between January 1981 and August 2017. A total of 30 articles met the inclusion criteria, and the Cochrane risk of bias tool was used to assess the risk of bias. The results of the included studies were recalculated to determine effect sizes using Cohen's d. RESULTS: A warm-up comprising 8 sets of 60-m sprints (- 2.19%, d = 1.20) improved sprint performance. Additionally, 7 min of dynamic exercises after 5 min of jogging improved sprint (- 7.69%, d = 1.72), jumping (8.61%, d = 0.61), and agility performance (- 6.65%, d = 1.40). The use of small-sided games also seems to be a valid strategy, especially for jumping performance (6%, d = 0.8). These benefits resulted from the warm-up strategies combined with some passive rest (between 2 and 10 min) before the main performance. In this post-warm-up period, the use of heated garments could result in better outcomes than simple rest (- 0.89%, d = 0.39). However, if the transition was longer than 15 min, before entering the match, performing a re-warm-up with short-term explosive tasks to reactivate was the most effective approach (- 1.97%, d = - 0.86). At half-time, heated garments maintained better sprint (- 1.45%, d = 2.21) and jumping performance (3.13%, d = 1.62). CONCLUSION: Applying properly structured strategies in the warm-up and avoiding a long rest in the post-warm-up improves explosive performance. Studies tend to recommend a short active warm-up strategy (10-15 min), gradually increasing intensity (~ 50-90% of maximum heart rate), and the use of heated garments soon after the warm-up to maintain muscle temperature. However, 2 min of active re-warm-up with short-term sprints and jumps should be needed for transitions longer than 15 min (~ 90% of maximum heart rate). Last, at the half-time re-warm-up, combining heated garments to maintain muscle temperature and performing an active strategy, with explosive tasks or small-sided games for 5 min before re-entering the game, resulted in better explosive performance than 15 min of resting.